#PAGE_PARAMS# #ADS_HEAD_SCRIPTS# #MICRODATA#

Empathy affects tradeoffs between life's quality and duration


Autoři: Adrianna C. Jenkins aff001
Působiště autorů: Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America aff001
Vyšlo v časopise: PLoS ONE 14(10)
Kategorie: Research Article
doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221652

Souhrn

Sharing others’ emotional experience through empathy has been widely linked to prosocial behavior, i.e., behavior that aims to improve others’ welfare. However, different aspects of a person’s welfare do not always move in concert. The present research investigated how empathy affects tradeoffs between two different aspects of others’ welfare: their experience (quality of life) and existence (duration of life). Three experiments offer evidence that empathy increases the priority people place on reducing others’ suffering relative to prolonging their lives. Participants assigned to high or low empathy conditions considered scenarios in which saving a person’s life was incompatible with extinguishing the person’s suffering. Higher empathy for a suffering accident victim was associated with greater preference to let the person die rather than keep the person alive. Participants expressed greater preference to end the lives of friends than strangers (Experiment 1), those whose perspectives they had taken than those whom they considered from afar (Experiment 2), and those who remained alert and actively suffering than those whose injuries had rendered them unconscious (Experiment 3). These results highlight a distinction between empathy’s effects on the motivation to reduce another person’s suffering and its effects on the prosocial behaviors that sometimes, but do not necessarily, follow from that motivation, including saving the person’s life. Results have implications for scientific understanding of the relationship between empathy and morality and for contexts in which people make decisions on behalf of others.

Klíčová slova:

Behavior – Consciousness – Decision making – Emotions – Motivation – Pain sensation – Prosocial behavior – Syncope


Zdroje

1. Hamilton WD. The genetical evolution of social behavior. J Theor Biol. 1964;1: 1–16. doi: 10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4

2. Stotland E. Exploratory Investigations of Empathy. Adv Exp Soc Psychol. 1969;4: 271–314. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60080-5

3. Tajfel H, Turner JC. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Psychology of Intergroup Relations. 1986. pp. 7–24. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00066.x

4. Cikara M, Bruneau EG, Saxe RR. Us and Them: Intergroup Failures of Empathy. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2011. pp. 149–153. doi: 10.1177/0963721411408713

5. Emswiller T, Deaux K, Willits JE. Similarity, Sex, and Requests for Small Favors. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1971;1: 284–291. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1971.tb00367.x

6. Kruger DJ. Evolution and altruism. Combining psychological mediators with naturally selected tendencies. Evol and Hum Behav. 2003. pp. 118–125. doi: 10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00156-3

7. Madsen EA, Tunney RJ, Fieldman G, Plotkin HC, Dunbar RIM, Richardson J-M, et al. Kinship and altruism: a cross-cultural experimental study. Br J Psychol. 2007;98: 339–359. doi: 10.1348/000712606X129213 17456276

8. Penner LA, Dovidio JF, Piliavin JA, Schroeder DA. Prosocial Behavior: Multilevel Perspectives. Annu Rev Psychol. 2005; 56: 365–392. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070141 15709940

9. Preston SD, de Waal FBM. Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behav Brain Sci. 2002;25: 1–20; discussion 20–71. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X02000018 12625087

10. Sawyer J. The altruism scale: a measure of co-operative, individualistic, and competitive interpersonal orientation. AJS. 1966;71: 407–416. doi: 10.1086/224129 5951757

11. Jenkins AC, Karashchuk P, Zhu L, Hsu M. Predicting human behavior toward members of different social groups. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2018;115: 9596–9701. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1719452115 30201708

12. Chiao JY, Mathur VA. Intergroup empathy: How does race affect empathic neural responses? Curr Biol. 2010;20. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.001 20541493

13. Korchmaros JD, Kenny D a. Emotional closeness as a mediator of the effect of genetic relatedness on altruism. Psychol Sci. 2001;12: 262–265. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00348 11437312

14. de Waal FBM. Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy. Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59: 279–300. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 17550343

15. Decety J, Jackson PL. The functional architecture of human empathy. Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev. 2004;3: 71–100. doi: 10.1177/1534582304267187 15537986

16. Hoffman ML. Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2001.

17. Batson CD, Duncan BD, Ackerman P, Buckley T, Birch K. Is Empathic Emotion a Source of Altruistic Motivation? J Pers Soc Psychol. 1981;40: 290–302. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.40.2.290

18. Coke JS, Batson CD, McDavis K. Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1978;36: 752–766.

19. de Waal FBM. Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy. Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59: 279–300. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 17550343

20. Singer P. The drowning child and the expanding circle. New Int. 1997;289: 28–30.

21. Batson DC. These things called empathy: eight related but distinct phenomena. In: Decety J, Ickes W, editors. The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2009. pp. 3–16. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9780262012973.001.0001

22. Avenanti A, Sirigu A, Aglioti SM. Racial bias reduces empathic sensorimotor resonance with other-race pain. Curr Biol. 2010;20: 1018–1022. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.03.071 20537539

23. Campbell MW, de Waal FBM. Chimpanzees empathize with group mates and humans, but not with baboons or unfamiliar chimpanzees. Proc Biol Sci. 2014;281: 20140013. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0013 24619445

24. Cheng Y, Chen C, Lin CP, Chou KH, Decety J. Love hurts: An fMRI study. Neuroimage. 2010;51: 923–929. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.047 20188182

25. Korchmaros JD, Kenny DA. Emotional closeness as a mediator of the effect of genetic relatedness on altruism. Psychol Sci. 2001;12: 262–265. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00348 11437312

26. Meyer ML, Masten CL, Ma Y, Wang C, Shi Z, Eisenberger NI, Han S. Empathy for the social suffering of friends and strangers recruits distinct patterns of brain activation. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013; 8: 446–454. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss019 22355182

27. Singer T, Seymour B, O’Doherty J, Kaube H, Dolan RJ, Frith CD. Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science. 2004;303: 1157–1162. doi: 10.1126/science.1093535 14976305

28. Xu X, Zuo X, Wang X, Han S. Do you feel my pain? Racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses. J Neurosci. 2009;29: 8525–8529. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2418-09.2009 19571143

29. Jenkins AC, Macrae CN, Mitchell JP. Repetition suppression of ventromedial prefrontal activity during judgments of self and others. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105: 4507–4512. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708785105 18347338

30. Mitchell JP, Macrae CN, Banaji MR. Dissociable Medial Prefrontal Contributions to Judgments of Similar and Dissimilar Others. Neuron. 2006;50: 655–663. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.040 16701214

31. Harris LT, Fiske ST. Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups. Psychol Sci. 2006;17: 847–853. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01793.x 17100784

32. Singer T, Frith C. The painful side of empathy. Nat Neurosci. 2005. pp. 845–846. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh500 16136667

33. Ames DL, Jenkins AC, Banaji MR, Mitchell JP. Taking another person’s perspective increases self-referential neural processing. Psychol Sci. 2008;19: 642–644. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02135.x 18727776

34. Davis MH, Conklin L, Smith a, Luce C. Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: a merging of self and other. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;70: 713–726. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.70.4.713 8636894

35. Galinsky AD, Moskowitz GB. Perspective-Taking: Decreasing Stereotype Expression, Stereotype Accessibility, and In-Group Favoritism An alternative strategy for social maneuvering. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2000;78: 708–724. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.78.4.708 10794375

36. Davis MH. Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1983;44: 113–126. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

37. Mathur VA, Harada T, Lipke T, Chiao JY. Neural basis of extraordinary empathy and altruistic motivation. Neuroimage. 2010;51: 1468–1475. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.025 20302945

38. Batson CD, Bolen MH, Cross J, Neuringer-Benefiel HE. Where is the altruism in the altruistic personality? J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;50: 212–220. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.212

39. Stocks EL, Lishner DA, Decker SK. Altruism or psychological escape: Why does empathy promote prosocial behavior? Eur J Soc Psychol. 2009;39: 649–665. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.561

40. Eisenberg N, Miller PA. The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychol Bull. 1987;101: 91–119. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91 3562705

41. Underwood B, Moore B. Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychol Bull. 1982;91: 143–173. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.91.1.143

42. Blair RJR. The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends Cogn Sci. 2007;11: 387–392. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2007.07.003 17707682

43. James R, Blair R, Jones L, Clark F, Smith M. The psychopathic individual: A lack of responsiveness to distress cues? Psychophysiology. 1997;34: 192–198. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02131.x 9090269

44. Decety J, Michalska KJ, Akitsuki Y, Lahey BB. Atypical empathic responses in adolescents with aggressive conduct disorder: A functional MRI investigation. Biol Psychol. 2009;80: 203–211. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.09.004 18940230

45. Hare RD, Neumann CS. Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4: 217–246. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452 18370617

46. Waller R, Hyde LW. Callous-unemotional behaviors in early childhood: the development of empathy and prosociality gone awry. Curr Opin in Psychol. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.037 28822897

47. Batson CD. The Altruism Question: Toward A Social Psychological Answer. Hilldale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1991.

48. Morelli SA, Lieberman MD, Zaki J. The emerging study of positive empathy. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2015;9: 57–68. doi: 10.1111/spc3.12157

49. Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang A-G, Buchner A. G * Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav Res Methods. 2007;39: 175–191. doi: 10.3758/bf03193146 17695343

50. Klimecki OM, Leiberg S, Ricard M, Singer T. Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013;9: 873–879. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst060 23576808

51. Batson CD, Sager K, Garst E, Kang M, et al. Is empathy-induced helping due to self-other merging? J Pers and Soc Psychol. 1997. pp. 495–509. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.495

52. Batson CD, Fultz J, Schoenrade PA. Distress and Empathy: Two Qualitatively Distinct Vicarious Emotions with Different Motivational Consequences. J Pers. 1987;55: 19–39. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00426.x 3572705

53. Preacher KJ, Hayes AF. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Methods. 2008;40: 879–891. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 18697684

54. Cicchetti D V. Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating normed and standardized assessment instruments in psychology. Psychol Assess. 1994;6: 284–290. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.6.4.284

55. Hallgren KA. Computing Inter-Rater Reliability for Observational Data: An Overview and Tutorial. Tutor Quant Methods Psychol. 2012;8: 23–34. doi: 10.20982/tqmp.08.1.p023 22833776

56. Lamm C, Batson CD, Decety J. The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. J Cogn Neurosci. 2007;19: 42–58. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42 17214562

57. Maner JK, Luce CL, Neuberg SL, Cialdini RB, Brown S, Sagarin BJ. The Effects of Perspective Taking on Motivations for Helping: Still No Evidence for Altruism. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2002;28: 1601–1610. doi: 10.1177/014616702237586

58. Batson CD, Lishner DA, Carpenter A, Dulin L, Harjusola-Webb S, Stocks EL, et al. “… As you would have them do unto you”: Does imagining yourself in the other’s place stimulate moral action? Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2003. doi: 10.1177/0146167203254600 15189613

59. Mayr E. Cause and effect in biology. Science. 1961; 134:1501–1506. doi: 10.1126/science.134.3489.1501 14471768

60. Trivers RL. The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism. Q Rev Biol. 1971. p. 35. doi: 10.1086/406755

61. Zaki J, Cikara M. Addressing Empathic Failures. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2015;24: 471–476. doi: 10.1177/0963721415599978

62. Bloom P. Empathy and Its Discontents. Trends Cogn Sci. 2016;xx: 1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.004 27916513

63. Batson CD, Klein TR, Highberger L, Shaw LL. Immorality from empathy-induced altruism: When compassion and justice conflict. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;68: 1042–1054. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1042

64. Graham J, Haidt J, Nosek B a. Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009;96: 1029–1046. doi: 10.1037/a0015141 19379034

65. Haidt J, Graham J. When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Soc Justice Res. 2007;20: 98–116. doi: 10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z

66. Crockett MJ, Siegel JZ, Kurth-Nelson Z, Grosse-Rueskamp JM, Dayan P, Dolan Correspondence RJ, et al. Dissociable Effects of Serotonin and Dopamine on the Valuation of Harm in Moral Decision Making. Curr Biol. 2015;25: 1852–1859. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.021 26144968

67. Crockett MJ, Clark L, Hauser MD, Robbins TW. Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through effects on harm aversion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107: 17433–17438. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1009396107 20876101

68. Bechara A, Tranel D, Damasio H. Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain. 2000;123 (Pt 1: 2189–2202. doi: 10.1093/brain/123.11.2189 11050020

69. Penner LA, Dovidio JF, Piliavin JA, Schroeder DA. Prosocial behaviour: Multilevel perspectives. Annu Rev Psychol. 2005;56: 365–392. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070141 15709940

70. Hemmerdinger JM, Stoddart SDR, Lilford RJ. A systematic review of tests of empathy in medicine. BMC Med Educ. 2007;7: 24. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-7-24 17651477

71. Spiro HM. What is empathy and can it be taught? Ann Intern Med. 1992;116: 843–846. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-116-10-843 1482433

72. Costa P, Magalhães E, Costa MJ. A latent growth model suggests that empathy of medical students does not decline over time. Adv Heal Sci Educ. 2013;18: 509–522. doi: 10.1007/s10459-012-9390-z 22760725

73. Smith KE, Norman GJ, Decety J. The complexity of empathy during medical school training: evidence for positive changes. Med Educ. 2017;51: 1146–1159. doi: 10.1111/medu.13398 28884471

74. Decety J, Fotopoulou A. Why empathy has a beneficial impact on others in medicine: unifying theories. Front Behav Neurosci. 2015;8: 457. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00457 25642175

75. Kaldjian LC, Jekel JF, Bernene JL, Rosenthal GE, Vaughan-Sarrazin M, Duffy TP. Internists’ attitudes towards terminal sedation in end of life care. J Med Ethics. 2004;30: 499–503. doi: 10.1136/jme.2003.004895 15467087

76. Ditto P, Druley J, Moore K, Danks JH, Smucker W. Fates worse than death: the role of valued life activities in health-state evaluations. Heal Psychol. 1996;15: 332–343. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.15.5.332 8891712


Článek vyšel v časopise

PLOS One


2019 Číslo 10
Nejčtenější tento týden
Nejčtenější v tomto čísle
Kurzy

Zvyšte si kvalifikaci online z pohodlí domova

KOST
Koncepce osteologické péče pro gynekology a praktické lékaře
nový kurz
Autoři: MUDr. František Šenk

Sekvenční léčba schizofrenie
Autoři: MUDr. Jana Hořínková

Hypertenze a hypercholesterolémie – synergický efekt léčby
Autoři: prof. MUDr. Hana Rosolová, DrSc.

Svět praktické medicíny 5/2023 (znalostní test z časopisu)

Imunopatologie? … a co my s tím???
Autoři: doc. MUDr. Helena Lahoda Brodská, Ph.D.

Všechny kurzy
Kurzy Podcasty Doporučená témata Časopisy
Přihlášení
Zapomenuté heslo

Zadejte e-mailovou adresu, se kterou jste vytvářel(a) účet, budou Vám na ni zaslány informace k nastavení nového hesla.

Přihlášení

Nemáte účet?  Registrujte se

#ADS_BOTTOM_SCRIPTS#